def print_whole_file(
    *,
    path: Optional[str] = None,
    file_obj: Optional[TextIO] = None
):
    assert path or file_obj

    if path:
        with open(path) as f:
            print(f.read(), end='')
    else:
        print(file_obj.read(), end='')

def print_whole_file(
    *,
    path: Optional[str] = None,
    file_obj: Optional[TextIO] = None
):
    assert path or file_obj

    with ExitStack() as stack:
        if path:
            file_obj = stack.enter_context(
                open(path)
            )

        print(file_obj.read(), end='')

def print_whole_file(
    *,
    path: Optional[str] = None,
    file_obj: Optional[TextIO] = None
):
    assert path or file_obj

    if path:
        context = open(path)
    else:
        context = nullcontext(file_obj)

    with context as f:
        print(f.read(), end='')

try:
    await action()
except asyncio.CancelledError:
    raise
except Exception:
    logging.exception('action failed')

def make_closure(x):
    def closure():
        print(x)

    return closure

make_closure(2)()

def make_closure(x):
    def closure():
        print(x)
        x *= 2
        print(x)

    return closure

make_closure(2)()

def make_closure(x):
    def closure():
        nonlocal x
        print(x)
        x *= 2
        print(x)

    return closure

make_closure(2)()

@property
def x(self):
    return self._x

@x.setter
def x(self, value):
    self._x = value

from functools import wraps

def make_case_decorator(func):
    def case_decorator(*case_decorator_args):
        def decorator(special_case_func):
            @wraps(func)
            def decorated(*args):
                if case_decorator_args == args:
                    return special_case_func(*args)
                return func(*args)

            decorated.case = make_case_decorator(decorated)

            return decorated

        return decorator

    return case_decorator


def special_cases(func):
    @wraps(func)
    def decorated(*args):
        return func(*args)

    decorated.case = make_case_decorator(decorated)

    return decorated


@special_cases
def fact(x):
    return x * fact(x - 1)

@fact.case(0)
def fact(x):
    return 1

@fact.case(10)
def fact(x):
    print(f'(сработала оптимизация для {x})')
    return 3628800

from contextlib import contextmanager
import time


@contextmanager
def timeit():
    start = time.monotonic()
    yield
    print(time.monotonic() - start)

def main():
    with timeit():
        time.sleep(2)

main()

>>> from sys import getsizeof
>>> class A:
...     pass
... 
>>> a = dict()
>>> b = A().__dict__
>>> type(a)
<class 'dict'>
>>> type(b)
<class 'dict'>
>>> a
{}
>>> b
{}
>>> getsizeof(a)
240
>>> getsizeof(b)
112

>>> [1, 2] + [2, 3]
[1, 2, 2, 3]

>>> (1, 2) + (2, 3)
(1, 2, 2, 3)

>>> "12" + "23"
'1223'

>>> deque([1, 2]) + deque([2, 3])
deque([1, 2, 2, 3])

>>> {1, 2} | {2, 3}
{1, 2, 3}

>>> {**dict(a=1, b=2), **dict(b=3, c=4)}
{'a': 1, 'b': 3, 'c': 4}

>>> {**dict(b=3, c=4), **dict(a=1, b=2)}
{'b': 2, 'c': 4, 'a': 1}

>>> Counter(dict(a=1, b=2)) + Counter(dict(b=3, c=4))
Counter({'b': 5, 'c': 4, 'a': 1})

ES_TAILS = ('s', 'x', 'z', 'ch', 'sh')

def make_plural(word, exceptions=None):
    if exceptions == None:  # ← ← ←
        exceptions = {}

    if word in exceptions:
        return exceptions[word]
    elif any(word.endswith(t) for t in ES_TAILS):
        return word + 'es'
    elif word.endswith('y'):
        return word[0:-1] + 'ies'
    else:
        return word + 's'

exceptions = dict(
    mouse='mice',
)

print(make_plural('python'))
print(make_plural('bash'))
print(make_plural('ruby'))
print(make_plural('mouse', exceptions=exceptions))

class A:
    def __eq__(self, other):
        return True

print(A() == None)  # True
print(A() is None)  # False

>>> math.nan == math.nan
False

>>> float('nan')
nan
>>> float('nan') is float('nan')
False

>>> d = {}
>>> d[float('nan')] = 1
>>> d[float('nan')] = 2
>>> d
{nan: 1, nan: 2}